Dangers of the Internet | Essay

Dangers of the Internet | Essay Abstract This essay presents a critical debate on whether the Internet is as dangerous as the physical world. First, the unique dangers posed by the Internet are outlined. This is followed by an examination of some of the major threats to safety that are present in the physical world but not in the virtual world. In the conclusion, the report also looks into how the virtual world might shape in the future. Is the World of Networked Computing as Dangerous as the Physical World? Introduction In cyberspace, no one hears your screams. (Merkow and Breithaupt, 2000) Modern society depends on the technology of networked computing more than ever. Whether it is the Internet, the World Wide Web (WWW), or other less well-known networks, people around the world depend on it for multifarious reasons from work and entertainment to essentials of life such as life support in medicine. Networked computing offers easy access, a large degree of anonymity and while this presents us with unique opportunities, it also presents us with unique dangers. In light of the increasing use and even dependence on networked computing, it is pertinent to examine the social, physical and ethical dangers presented by it. This essay critically debates the issue of whether the world of networked computing is as dangerous as the physical world. The Dangers on the Internet Preying by Paedophiles One of the most disturbing crimes on the Internet today is ‘grooming’. Child grooming is an act where a paedophile will befriend a child, or form an intimate relationship in order to lower a child’s sexual inhibitions. Grooming will initiate from chat rooms designed for children and teenagers and sometimes through emails, where an adult will pose as a teenager, but will often move into using instant messaging services so that the paedophile can talk the victim into sending images and even using a webcam. Research conducted by the Cyberspace Research Unit at the University of Central Lancashire states â€Å"another of the frequent topics concerned on-line grooming and in particular, ways in which to avoid detection† (O’Connell, 2003). While this statement gives concern that paedophiles may be able to escape without notice, the report goes on to say, â€Å"Throughout each of the stages there are clear and easily identifiable differences in the pattern s of behaviour of the individuals.† The stages that are talked about here are known as ‘Friendship forming state’ where the paedophile will just spend time getting to know the child, ‘Relationship forming state’ where the paedophile will start to ask questions about things such as school and home life, ‘Risk assessment stage’ where the paedophile will ask the child questions like who else uses the computer, ‘Exclusivity stage’ where the victim is encouraged to trust the paedophile, and ‘Sexual stage’ where the paedophile will ask the child about previous intimate experiences. Bullying and Other Negative Electronic Relationships The virtual world is home to some serious negative and destructive electronic relationships. Cyber bullying, one of the more common ones, is mainly targeted at school pupils in addition to actual physical and verbal bullying. Carnell (2007) points out to evidence that many pupils are being targeted in their own homes, by phone texts, silent calls, on instant messenger, and by abusive websites and forums, some set up with the specific intention of causing humiliation and embarrassment. This shows the severity of cyber bullying in society today. Griffiths, M.D. (1998) offers the following explanation. The Internet is easy to access from home or work. It is becoming quite affordable and has always offered anonymity. For some people it offers an emotional and mental escape from real life, and this is especially true for individuals who are shy or feel trapped in unhappy relationships. It is also true for individuals who work long hours and have little opportunity for social life. Electronic (or internet) relationships started off when chatrooms were introduced and really boomed since the creation of Instant Messaging. A person can enter a chatroom, use an alias, and can talk to other members without revealing their true identity. However, this raises an important question. If you can do all that without revealing your true identity can you really trust the person you are talking to? Can you be certain that they are being honest with you? Some say that it’s not real and therefore they don’t really worry about it, while others suggest that Internet relationships have a way of tapping into deep feelings and it’s easier to get hurt. Katz and Rice (2002, p286) suggest, â€Å"students are meeting and â€Å"dating† on the internet†¦they even have monogamous relationships this way, telling others who might ask that they will not go out with them because they are â€Å"dating† someone.† Various researches suggest that it is more common for young people to meet and date people using the Internet and it is becoming more widely accepted as a social meeting point. This however causes concerns about why people are choosing to use the Internet for this reason. Many people feel more comfortable talking about feelings over instant messaging, and this is especially true of shy people or people that feel trapped in an offline relationship. Addictions The Internet also has the notoriety of helping to create unhealthy addictions. The majority of UK bookmakers now run online websites in which people can make exactly the same bets they would in the betting shop, but from the comfort of their own home. The rate at which the online gambling industry is commercialised today is astronomical. From 2005 to 2006 the sector has become the fifth largest advertiser online, jumping to 2.5 billion from 911 million ads in the last year (Schepp, 2002). And this is without the likes of TV ads, magazine ads, and adverts on the radio. This means that the majority of people in society now see online gambling as more acceptable than in recent years. Besides the increased risk of fraud on the Internet, the online gambling also poses the serious problem of an easier way to get addicted. This is because it is relatively easier to sit in front of a computer and gamble than to walk to the nearest betting shop in the cold winter to make a bet. Gambling is ho wever, just one of the addictions people are vulnerable to online. Mitchell (2000) uses the term Internet addiction to indicate the spectrum of additions that one is susceptible to on the Internet. He states that although there is some disagreement about whether Internet addiction is a real diagnosis, compulsive Internet use has psychological dangers, and reports such behaviour can result in the users having withdrawal symptoms, depression, social phobia, impulse control disorder, attention deficit disorder, etc. Viruses and Hacking In 2000, the number of worldwide email mailboxes was put at 505 million, and this was expected to increase to 1.2 billion in 2005 (Interactive Data Corporation, 2001). Schofield (2001) points out that more than 100 million people use instant messaging (IM) programs on the net, and a growing number among them also use it to transfer files. This number is obviously growing, but this example shows that online communication is becoming a much widely used method of communication. Online communication such as email and instant messaging does not come without problems. Hindocha (2003) states that instant messengers can transfer viruses and other malicious software as they provide the ability to transfer text as well as files. Viruses and malicious software can be transferred to the recipients computer without the knowledge of the user. This makes them very dangerous. As the use of online communications becomes more widespread, it is seen as an opportunity for people to gain access to the fi les on a computer. Hindocha (2003) gives the example of hackers using instant messaging to gain unauthorised access to computers, bypassing desktop and perimeter firewall implementations. This is a real concern for most users, especially as the instant messaging and email client software are trusted software; for a home user, their personal information stored on the computer, such as internet banking security details, identifying information that could be used in identity theft, etc. are the risks. However, online communication software such as these are also often used in businesses also, and in this case, extensive records of financial information are vulnerable. Hindocha (2003) goes on to say about instant messaging systems, â€Å"finding victims doesn’t require scanning unknown IP addresses, but rather simply selecting from an updated directory of buddy lists.† This throws up serious concerns. Theft and Fraud Electronic commerce faces the major threats of theft and fraud. Online theft commonly occurs in the form of identity theft, and less commonly, outright theft, for example by unauthorised access to bank accounts. Camp (2000) points out that while it may seem a big leap to exchange a bill of paper money for machine readable data streams, the value bound to the paper abstraction of wealth is simply a reflection of trust in the method of abstraction that is widely shared and built over centuries. Money on the Internet is simply a different abstraction of wealth, and has similar issues with trust and risk as traditional money, together with the additional dangers posed by the virtual nature of the environment. Because all communication on the Internet is vulnerable to unauthorised access, this means that it is relatively easy to commit fraud. Where legislation is not a deterrent, technology is almost none. Credit card fraud and theft, electronic banking theft, etc. are some of the more co mmon crimes committed online involving money. What Makes It Safer Than The Physical World? Safe from Immediate Physical Harm Perhaps the only upper hand the virtual world has is that its inhabitants are immune to the immediate threat of physical violence; one cannot be randomly mugged online. However, vulnerable people are still susceptible to physical violence and harm, perhaps more to self-harm; there are many websites that promote anorexia, suicide and self-harm, and this can leave a big impact on impressionable minds. Presence of Strong Safeguards The main safeguards on the Internet are policing with the accompanying legislation, and technology itself. There are organisations in place to deal with the abusive websites and forums, appropriate legislation to prevent child pornography, paedophilia, theft, fraud and a variety of other online crime. There is also a vast array of technology that can help keep adults and children safe online, from parental control software that can restrict the websites viewed by children, to anti-virus and cryptography software and firewalls that help prevent hacking and viruses and keep data safe. Conclusion Staying safe online It is commonly accepted that the Internet provides us with opportunities that have been hitherto unavailable. Many sing the praises of this so-called information superhighway; however, it is prudent not to be lulled into a false sense of security by the promising opportunities. People should be made aware of the dangers lurking in the Internet, and be given the education and means to take steps to stay safe online. Just as children are taught not to speak to strangers in the real world, they should be taught not to speak to strangers online as well. Education in schools should include education about how to stay safe online; just as children are taught that eating fruit and vegetables are healthy, they should also be taught that excessive online activities can lead to addiction, with various negative consequences. This is because the virtual world is not very different from the physical world in terms of people waiting to take advantage of the weak and vulnerable, and also with respe ct to dangers such as addiction. The future of the virtual world In many ways, the virtual world is a reflection of the real world. After all, the people who inhabit the real world are the same people that also inhabit the virtual world. It follows therefore, that what people do and want to do in the real world, they would try to do in the virtual world too. Where the physical constraints of the virtual world restrict them, they would try to find ways to get around it. The rapid development of technology also gives rise to new means by which people can do things, beneficial or harmful. The development of virtual reality may mean that one day, people in the virtual world may not be immune to immediate physical harm either. However, the technology by itself is neither good nor bad; it is the way the technology is put to use that creates positive and negative consequences for human beings. In the end, it can be said that virtual world is perhaps just as dangerous as the physical world. References Camp, L. J.(2000) Trust and Risk in Internet Commerce Publication: Cambridge, Mass MIT Press. Carnell, L. (2007) Pupils Internet Safety Online. Bullying Online [online]. Available at: http://www.bullying.co.ukpupils/internet_safety.php (last accessed Aug 2007) Griffiths, M.D. (2002) The Social Impact of Internet Gambling Social Science Computer Review, Vol. 20, No. 3, 312-320 (2002) SAGE Publications Griffiths, M. (1998) Does Internet and computer â€Å"addiction† exist? Some case study evidence International Conference: 25-27 March 1998, Bristol, UK IRISS 98: Conference Papers (Available online at http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/archive/iriss/papers/paper47.htm last accessed Aug 2007) Griffiths, M.D. (2000) Cyber Affairs. Psychology Review, 7, p28. Hindocha, N. (2003) Threats to Instant Messaging. Symantec Security Response, p3. Interactive Data Corporation (2001) Email mailboxes to increase to 1.2 billion worldwide by 2005 CNN.com (Available online at http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/internet/09/19/email.usage.idg/ last accessed Aug 2007) Katz, J.E. and Rice, R.E. (2002) Social Consequences of Internet Use. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p286. Merkow, M. S. and Breithaupt, J. (2000) The Complete Guide to Internet Security New York AMACOM Books Mitchell, P. (2000) Internet addiction: genuine diagnosis or not? The Lancet,Volume 355,Issue 9204,Pages 632-632 O’Connell, R. (n.d.) A Typology of Child Cyber Sexploitation and Online Grooming Practices. Cyberspace Research Unit UCLAN, p7-9. Schepp, D. (2002) Internet Gambling Hots Up BBC Online (Available online at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1834545.stm last accessed Aug 2007) Smith, J. and Machin, A.M. (2004) Youth Culture and New Technologies. New Media Technologies, QUT.

Leader-Member Exchange theory of leadership Essay

The Leader-Member Exchange theory of leadership (Also known as LMX, LMET or Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory) is a type of leadership theory that focuses on the dyadic relationship between leader and follower where the leader treats individual followers differently, resulting in two groups of followers—an in-group and an out-group. The in-group consists of a small number of trusted followers with whom the leader usually establishes a special higher quality exchange relationship. The out-group includes the followers with whom the relationship of the leader remains more formal. It focuses on increasing organizational success by creating positive relations between the leader and subordinate (follower). The theory asserts that leaders do not interact with subordinates uniformly. ‘In-group’ followers perform their jobs in accordance with the employment contracts and can be counted on by the supervisor to perform unstructured tasks, to volunteer for extra work, and to take on additional responsibilities. Supervisors exchange personal and positional resources (inside information, influence in decision making, task assignment, job latitude, support, and attention) in return for subordinates’ performance on unstructured tasks. High LMX relationship achieves increased mutual trust, confidence, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, common bonds, open communication, independence respect, rewards & recognition and hence benefits both the organisation and the employee. Recognizing the existence of the in-group and out-group, could be discriminating against the out-group thus affecting employee turnover based on bad-quality LMX and job dissatisfaction. This is because members of ‘out-group’ Example of an organization that has successfully used this theory is ‘E-Myth Worldwide’

Acct2127 Course Guide S2 2013 - 2393 Words

RMIT Course Guide System - HE Part B: Course Detail Page 1 of 5 Accounting for Management Decisions Part B: Course Detail Status: Published Version 1 Teaching Period RMIT Course Code RMIT Course Title School Career Campus Learning Mode Primary Learning Mode Sem 2 2013 ACCT2127 Accounting for Management Decisions 615H Accounting Postgraduate City Campus Face-to-Face Primary learning mode is face-to face class seminars Credit Points Teacher Guided Hours Learner Directed Hours Course Coordinator Course Coordinator Phone Course Coordinator Email Offering Coordinator 12 36 per semester 72 per semester Arabella Volkov 9925 5731 arabella.volkov@rmit.edu.au Arabella Volkov Offering Coordinator Phone +61 3 99255731 Offering†¦show more content†¦19/07/2013 RMIT Course Guide System - HE Part B: Course Detail Page 3 of 5 7 COST

The Issue Of Criminal Activities - 1554 Words

To participate in criminal activities means to be involved in â€Å"An act committed in violation of law where the consequence of conviction by a court is punishment, especially where the punishment is a serious one such as imprisonment.† There are various reasons why an individual may choose to commit the offense; however, there are also many different developing theories and suggestions about why crimes actually occur at all. For example; do some individuals have a predisposition, born of either their nature or nurture, which leads them to commit crimes? Can the likelihood of committing a crime be decided within the first four years of life? And therefore, whether or not are offenders always to blame? Attachment can be defined†¦show more content†¦These children are often easily soothed by their attachment figure and are able to then grow and develop confidence in their attachment figure to be there to support them. Children are then able to use their attachment figure as a secure base in which to explore their surroundings. However, when the child and their caregiver are separated, the child becomes upset and distressed until their return, in which they are again easily comforted. An insecure resistant attachment develops as a result of inconsistent levels of responses from their primary caregiver. The child grow to be dependent on their attachment figure and often exhibit clingy behaviour but as a result of not developing any feelings of security toward them, they are not easily soothed or comforted by interaction with their primary caregiver when distressed. Children with resistant attachment type explore their surroundings very little as they prefer to stay within the close proximity of their caregiver. Insecure avoidant attachment type may develop if the child’s primary caregiver is inattentive or unavailable during times of distress. This motivates the child’s belief that any communication of their needs will have no impact on their primary caregiver. As such the child then continues not to seek contact with their caregiver during further times of distress. Children with this attachment type also tend not to orientate their explorations of the world in accordance to

Essay about AIDS Problem - 2599 Words

1. Introduction Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, also known as AIDS, is caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).HIV damages body’s immune system by destroying white blood cells which help us to destroy invaded pathogens. When HIV enters a white blood cell, it may remain dormant. However, once it is activated, it infects another cell to produce many new HIVS. After a certain period of time, the white blood cells are destroyed and leading to a loss of function of the immune system (Y.K. Ho,2004). People infected by HIV will turn out to have AIDS. Infected people are very weak to fight off other infectious disease and soon they will die. According to the data and statistics of WHO, global summary of the AIDS epidemic, 2009, the†¦show more content†¦At, that time, more than 100 thousand farmers were infected; nearly 10 thousand of them died. Predicting the trend, it is difficult for China to have only 370 thousand people living with AIDS as the Chinese government just want to hide the fact and did little to deal with the current situation. This essay will state the factors leading to such condition in detail. And also criticizes the policies or measures that applied by the government. At the end, there will be some suggestion to resolve the issue. 3. Factors that lead to the condition According to the public health model, health status is not only relying on individual and form a biological perspective. It also related to the interaction with the social or physical environment. Therefore, when analyzing the factors that lead to the severe AIDS problem in Henan, where the famous â€Å"AIDS villages† located in China, we should consider comprehensively, include the scientific, economic and social perspective. ï  ¬ Scientific perspective In this case, the epidemiologic triangle can be used to describe the rapidly transmitted AIDS disease. The triangle is composed by three parts: pathogen, host and environment. This part will focus more on pathogen and host; environment will be further discussed in economic and social perspective. A common pathogenetic feature underlying is the deficiency of the immune system caused by HIV, whichShow MoreRelatedAids : The Problem Of Aids1250 Words   |  5 PagesAlthough advancements in AIDS research have continued over the past 2 decades, the misconception that people can contract the AIDS virus from sharing a drink is still prevalent. Aids is a major issue throughout the world and kills many people. 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Assess the view that in todays society the family Free Essays

Assess the view that in todays society the family is losing its functions (24 Marks) According to functionalists the family has lost its functions, functionalism claim there is integration and harmony between different parts of society which rely upon each other to maintain a cooperating society. Functionalists view the family as vital organs in maintaining society, functionalism concentrates on the contribution of the family towards society and how the family fits with other social institutions to create and efficient society. Functionalists like Murdock argues that the family has four main unctions; reproduction as the family provides some stability for the reproduction and rearing of children, economic as the family provides for the family in terms of food and shelter, sexual and socialisation. We will write a custom essay sample on Assess the view that in todays society the family or any similar topic only for you Order Now Murdock regards these functions as necessary in any society; he suggests the nuclear family was found in every society however it is not the only form of arrangement that can carry these functions out. For functionalists the family â€Å"fulfils a number of important functions for individuals and society such as the socialisation of children and the stabilisation of adult ersonalities† Functionalists like Parsons and Dennis argue that in contemporary society many of the functions performed by the family and pre industrialised society has been removed from the family. Many argue that â€Å"these functions are being taken over by other institutions† and that these have been transferred to other institutions for example the NHS as well as the education and welfare system. Parsons refers to this as structural differentiation and he also claimed that is process has meant that modern more specialised families now only have two main basic needs; Primary socialisation of children and stabilisation of adult personalities. However many sociologists argue against claims made my Parsons and Dennis, some argue that the family has not lost its functions. Fletcher and Shorter 1966 deny that the family has lost its functions in contemporary society. They suggest that during pre industrial and early industrial society poverty meant that functions such as welfare and education were not effectively carried out. Children were often neglected and male peasants didn’t care for their wives but more about their animals. Fletchers argues that the family has now more note fewer functions placed on it for example the ealth and welfare functions of the family have been strengthened by welfare state and parents now are more preoccupied with their children’s health. Social services with their powers now intervene in family cases if there are reports or suspicions of child neglect and this has increased the responsibilities of parents rather than discouraging them. Feminism however disagrees with the view that the family has lost its economic role of a unit of production and argue that it has become a unit of consumption. They also majority of home work is productive but it not recognised as uch because it is unpaid and usually done by women. They argue that the economic contribution made by women is underestimated. Radical feminist Christine Delphine and Dianna Leonard 1992 argues that some functions of production have been lost but others are pretormed to a higher standard than the past tor example washing, ironing and cleaning as â€Å"family life is much less stable than it was in the past†. A traditional function of the family is the reproduction and nurturing of children being seen as the main reason for marriage as a means of passing on family property and roviding a future workforce. However this has changed as there has been an increase in the number of people having sexual relations before marriage and out of marriage. Another traditional function of the family was industrialisation and the growth of factory production in Britain, the family was a unit of production which meant the family home was also a work place. Children would learn the skills needed for life from their elders and they often followed their parents footsteps in life. However this has changed as well as since the 19th century work has moved outside he home to factories and offices. Families no longer produce the goods they need they go out instead to work and earn wages to but the goods. These skills needed can no longer be learnt from the family but rather in a place of work or education. Occupations are less likely to be achieved by kinship but instead by individual merits. Lastly the family traditionally played an important role in caring for children however before the twentieth century most children were poorly looked after due to poverty. This has now changed as the modern family gets more help in caring for children hrough a range of state welfare services and growing numbers of care services such as play groups and nurseries. All the writers tend to think in terms of the family without differentiating between different family types. Graham Allan and Graham Crow 2001 argue that attempts to identify the functions of the family can be criticised because of the functionalist ‘one size fits’ approach. Postmodernists and different feminists reject this view that there is one single family type which always performs certain functions. This makes it difficult to measure functions of society. How to cite Assess the view that in todays society the family, Papers

Various Meanings Spirituality-Sociological & Philosophical Perspective

Questions: Discuss the various meanings of "spirituality" and their relevance in the context of managed care including sociological and philosophical perspectives. Consider the religious and cultural context of modern health care and medicine (i.e., pluralism, scientism, and postmodernism). Be sure to address the following questions: What is prime reality? What is the nature of the world around us? What is a human being? What happens to a person at death? Why is it possible to know anything at all? How do we know what is right or wrong? What is the meaning of human history? Prepare this assignment according to the APA guidelines. An abstract is not required.? Answers: Spirituality Introduction The concept of spirituality is extremely broad and is comprises within itself a number of different perspectives. Generally, it includes the feeling of connecting with the things that is much bigger than humans and it also includes the search for a meaning for existence on this earth. Spirituality is such a human experience that is universal and is experienced by all in more or less extent (Dennis, 2014). However, it should be noted that the word spirituality does not have one single definition that is applicable throughout the world. In modern times this concept has mixed with a number of numinous and obscure customs and human psychologies and western and eastern traditions (Dorr, 2008). Concept of Prime Reality The concept of scientism states that science is the only path to the real world. In this concept of scientism, the notion of prime reality has been defined either as the cosmos which exists in itself and that which has always existed or it is defined as the God which is self-existent. In the study of Naturalism the idea of prime reality is such a matter that exists forever and is the only thing that exists throughout (Hunt McMahon, 1993). The concept of scientism promotes cosmos to be the prime reality and eliminates God from this sphere. According to this concept, matter is the only thing that has existed throughout however the existence may not be in the current state. they consider matter to be the only thing which does not have any Creator. Nature of the world around us The idea of post modernism is usually used by the sociologists and for describing the method of thinking which has become more enveloping in the Western countries in the recent decades (YE, 2008). The concept of scientism describes the world around us from with an independent view that is connected to the removal of emotional extent of experience. Human being The idea of pluralism opines that all human beings learn, sleep, eat and live in a particular community along with other fellow human beings. In some traditions this condition is created by the God (Heelas, 2010). Some of the traditions consider the condition of human beings to be the reason for suffering. Some other traditions state that humans are the ones who have been so after going through harsh spiritual regulations. However, pluralism states that all human beings are the same and that it is one characteristic that is shared universally between all humans. Person at death The notion of post modernism does not have any moral supreme that tends to place the responsibility on the hands of the individuals. In this concept death is simply regarded as a method that leads to physical extinction and that it does not believe in any such thing like immorality. It further states that it is the physical world that only exists and they also do not believe in the existence of soul. Possibility of knowing anything or everything People who propose for the concept of scientism consider the world to be real. However, they also state that they also do not know the actual reality. To them what is observed is what they know. The manner in which the world portrays itself is what is known (Haack, 2003). What is present beyond this appearance is unknown for everyone. What is right or wrong The concept of post modernism states that there exists no absolute truth. According to a distinctive post modern perspective belief is above everything. If a person believes in something it is true or else it is false. This theory also states that all the principles that exist are nothing other than just being preferences. All they do is to be a disguise for the force to power. However there are a number of feminist scholars who consider that this sort of a concept arises from a male centric perspective which happens to be more coercive (Kostikova, 2013). Human history In the concept of naturalism history can be considered as a linear progression which does not necessarily have a special meaning. This concept does not believe in anything that gives super natural ideas (Williams Robinson, 2014). It only believes in the things which exist. Things that do not exist do not have any place in this concept. Hence with regard to human history the existence of humans with regard to birth and death is the only thing that exists. References Dennis, P. (2014).Spirituality. Cork: BookBaby. Dorr, D. (2008).Spirituality. Dublin: The Columba Press. Haack, S. (2003).Defending science--within reason. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. Heelas, P. (2010).Spirituality. London: Routledge. Hunt, D., McMahon, T. (1993).The new spirituality. Eugene, Or.: Harvest House Publishers. Kostikova, A. (2013). Postmodernism: A Feminist Critique.Metaphilosophy,44(1-2), 24-28. doi:10.1111/meta.12008 Williams, R., Robinson, D. (2014).Scientism. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. YE, H. (2008). Historiography of Psychology: Challenges of Postmodernism.Acta Psychologica Sinica,40(5), 626-632. doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2008.00626